At least one other cartridge which feeds though the AR-15 lower magazine is 2-1/2" 410 shotgun. An 18" smoothbore semi-auto upper is imported from Safir Arms in Turkey.
There are several uppers in which ammo does not feed though the lower. One is the AR-57 upper. It uses a 50 round FN magazine mounted above the barrel and shoots 5.7x28 FN ammo. It's available in pistol/SBR or carbine barrel length. It uses the lower mag well to drop or catch spent brass.
There are also several makers of large caliber single shot uppers which use the AR-15 lower. Those are available in 50 BMG, 416 Barrett, 338 Lapua, and other calibers.
There's even the PSE TAC crossbow upper for an AR-15 lower.